Foreign Travellers to India: From Ancient to Modern Times

India has always been a land of attraction for the world. Its rich culture, spiritual traditions, trade routes, philosophy, education, and political power drew the attention of foreign travellers, historians, and scholars across centuries. From ancient Greece to medieval Arabia, from Chinese monks to European envoys, travellers came here to explore, learn, trade, and record their experiences.

Their travelogues and writings today are more than historical documents — they are windows into the social, cultural, political, and economic life of India through different ages.

Let us walk through the journeys of these travellers, arranged chronologically, and understand their contribution to Indian history.

1. Ancient Period Travellers

During the ancient period, many foreign travellers visited India, drawn by its rich culture, trade, and spirituality. Megasthenes (Greek ambassador) wrote “Indica” about Mauryan India under Chandragupta Maurya. Fa-Hien (Chinese monk) visited during Chandragupta II’s reign, describing Buddhist life in “Fo-Kuo-Ki.” Hiuen Tsang, during Harshavardhana’s time, detailed education at Nalanda in “Si-Yu-Ki.” I-Tsing also studied Buddhism in India and translated texts into Chinese. These travellers’ records provide valuable insights into India’s ancient society, education, and religious harmony, showing the country’s global significance as a center of learning and culture.

Herodotus – 5th Century BCE

Known as the “Father of History.”

• Although he never visited India personally, he mentioned India in his work Histories.

• He described Indian tribes, customs, and even the legendary story of "gold-digging ants."

Megasthenes – 302 BCE

• A Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nikator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

• Authored the famous work Indica.

• Provided detailed accounts of administration, caste system, agriculture, and urban life in Mauryan India.

• His observations are one of the earliest eye-witness accounts of India.

2. Gupta and Harsha Period

During the Gupta and Harsha period, several foreign travellers visited India, revealing its rich cultural and intellectual heritage. Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist monk, came during Chandragupta II’s reign (Gupta period) and described peaceful life, Buddhist monasteries, and social customs in his book “Fo-Kuo-Ki.” Later, Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited during King Harshavardhana’s rule and recorded details of Nalanda University, religion, and administration in “Si-Yu-Ki.” These accounts highlight India’s prosperity, education system, and spiritual tolerance during this golden age.

Faxian (Fa-Hien) – 405 CE

• A Buddhist monk from China.

• Visited during the reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

• Purpose: to collect Buddhist texts and relics.

• His accounts described law and order, social harmony, and the prosperity of Gupta India.

(b) Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) – 630 CE

• A Chinese pilgrim-scholar.

• It came during the reign of Harshavardhana.

• Spent years studying at Nalanda University.

• His work Si-Yu-Ki (Records of the Western World) is an invaluable source on India’s religion, geography, and politics.

Sung Yun – 6th Century CE

• Another Chinese traveller.

• Visited India for Buddhist pilgrimage and documented Buddhist sites and practices.

3. Medieval Period Travellers

During the medieval period, many foreign travellers visited India and recorded its culture, economy, and rulers. Al-Biruni (from Persia) came with Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote “Tahqiq-i-Hind,” describing India’s science and religion. Marco Polo (from Italy) visited South India and praised its trade and governance. Ibn Battuta (from Morocco) came during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign and wrote “Rihla,” detailing Delhi’s administration and society. Nicolo Conti and Abdul Razzaq also explored India’s prosperity. These accounts highlight India’s wealth, cultural diversity, and global connections during the medieval era.

Al-Biruni – 1017 CE

• A Persian scholar who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni.

• I learned Sanskrit to study Indian texts.

• Wrote Tahqiq-i-Hind (Researches on India).

• Described Indian religion, science, astronomy, mathematics, and customs with great depth.

Al-Istakhri – 10th Century CE

• An Arab geographer.

• Author Kitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik (Book of Routes and Realms).

• Though he did not travel widely inside India, he mapped and described trade routes and coastal regions of the subcontinent.

Marco Polo – 1292 CE

• A Venetian traveller.

• Visited southern India during the rule of the Pandyas.

• His Travels of Marco Polo highlighted Indian trade, textiles, and society.

Ibn Battuta – 1333 CE

• A Moroccan traveller.

• Arrived during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

• Appointed as Qazi of Delhi.

• Authored by Rihla, giving detailed descriptions of India’s society, customs, and the eccentricities of Tughlaq’s rule.

Nicolo de Conti – 1420 CE

• An Italian traveller.

• Visited the Vijayanagara Empire.

• Documented the grandeur of temples and markets.

Abdur Razzaq – 1443 CE

• A Persian envoy from the court of Persia.

• It came during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagar.

• His book Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain describes Hampi’s magnificence.

Domingo Paes – 1520 CE

• A Portuguese traveller.

• Visited the Vijayanagar Empire during Krishnadevaraya’s reign.

• His accounts praise Vijayanagar’s military, architecture, and prosperity.

Fernao Nunes – 1535 CE

• A Portuguese chronicler.

• Also visited Vijayanagar, describing its social customs and temple culture.

4. Mughal Period Travellers

During the Mughal period, many foreign travellers visited India, attracted by its wealth, art, and powerful emperors. Thomas Roe (England) came to the court of Jahangir as an ambassador of King James I and recorded Mughal politics and culture. François Bernier and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier from France described India’s trade, architecture, and social life under Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Niccolao Manucci, an Italian, wrote “Storia do Mogor” based on his experiences in Mughal courts. Their accounts provide valuable insights into Mughal administration, economy, and grandeur.

William Hawkins – 1608 CE

• An English envoy of the East India Company.

• Came to the court of Jahangir.

• Tried negotiating for trade rights but failed due to Portuguese opposition.

Sir Thomas Roe – 1615–1619 CE

• Ambassador of King James I of England.

• Spent four years at Jahangir’s court.

• Wrote The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to India.
• Secured crucial trade rights for the English in India.

Pietro Della Valle – 1623 CE

• An Italian traveller.

• Described Indian art, architecture, and traditions during Jahangir’s time.

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier – 1640–1667 CE

• A French jeweller and traveller.

• Visited multiple times during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.

• Wrote Travels in India, especially noting diamond mines of Golconda and trade.

François Bernier – 1656 CE

• A French physician and traveller.

• Lived in India for 12 years during Aurangzeb’s rule.

• His Travels in the Mughal Empire offered detailed accounts of Mughal politics, administration, and decline.

Niccolao Manucci – 1653 CE

• An Italian traveller who lived long in India.

• Authored Storia do Mogor, an insider’s chronicle of Mughal court intrigues.

5. Modern Period Travellers and Historians

During the modern period, several travellers and historians visited India, documenting its society, culture, and colonial transformation. James Mill wrote “History of British India,” offering a European perspective on Indian civilization. William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe established trade relations and described Mughal diplomacy. Later, Bishop Heber and George Forster recorded India’s landscapes and people under British rule. These travellers and historians provided first-hand accounts of India’s political, economic, and cultural changes, helping future generations understand the country’s evolution during the colonial era.

John Fitch – 1583 CE

• One of the earliest English travellers to Akbar’s court.

• Described Indian trade and opportunities.

James Forbes – 1766–1784 CE

• An English writer.

• His Oriental Memoirs recorded Indian flora, fauna, landscapes, and culture.

George Forster – 1782 CE

• Travelled from Bengal to England.

• Wrote A Journey from Bengal to England, offering a vivid travel narrative.

James Tod – Early 19th Century

• A British officer and historian.

• Authored Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan.

• Known for recording Rajput history and valor, preserving oral traditions into written form.

Importance of These Accounts

• Ancient travellers like Megasthenes, Faxian, and Xuanzang introduced India’s philosophies, social systems, and religion to the outside world.
• Medieval travellers such as Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Abdur Razzaq provided a mirror of India’s trade, society, and spiritual traditions.
• Mughal-period travellers like Thomas Roe, Tavernier, and Bernier described the grandeur and decline of the Mughal Empire.
• Modern travellers and historians like James Tod and James Forbes preserved regional histories and gave the West a detailed image of India.

Conclusion

From ancient Greek envoys to Chinese monks, from Arab scholars to European merchants, the travellers who visited India between 5th century BCE to the 19th century CE played a vital role in shaping the world’s image of India.

They came to India for different purposes — trade, pilgrimage, diplomacy, or curiosity — but their writings enriched global knowledge. Their works like Indica, Si-Yu-Ki, Tahqiq-i-Hind, Rihla, Travels in India, Embassy of Thomas Roe, and Annals of Rajasthan remain invaluable sources to reconstruct Indian history.

India’s diversity, spirituality, and richness fascinated them then — and continues to fascinate the world today.